Plato, Mills, And Madison
IS OPINION GREATER THAN ORDER?
Plato, James Madison, and John Mills are all supporters of the idea that opinion must be discussed in public debate. In my own reason-based thought this idea that through silence ignorance grows louder is my own general understanding.
In Plato’s The Republic he discuses the idea that there is first knowledge at the first degree. In the second degree there is opinion which is neither proven to be true or false. In the last degree is falsehood. He argues that opinion is not pure knowledge and therefore can not be pure truth. Plato goes on to say, “But surely when a man is deceived in his own mind we can fairly call his ignorance of the truth “true falsehood”. For a false statement is merely some kind of representation of a state of mind, an expression consequent on it, and not the original unadulterated falsehood.” This is also true for pure knowledge. The truth we believe in our own mind is true to us; it’s called our opinion. This shows that in order to form pure knowledge we have to voice the truth that is in our minds, which in fact are opinions. In order to learn pure truth we need to test opinions to prove their status. Plato stated, “And it will produce its natural effects also in the individual. It renders him incapable of action because of internal conflicts and division of purpose, and sets him at variance with himself and with all who are just.” He said this about men who were at odds with themselves. In reality falsehood causes inner conflict and in order to have inner peace that conflict must be resolved. Therefore, the falsehood in ones own mind must be purged and tested by the means of public debate to solve the inner conflict and set the man at peace.
In James Madison’s Federalist # 10 is also familiar with Plato’s writings. Madison said, “As long as the reason of man continues fallible, and he is at liberty to exercise it, different opinions will be formed. As long as the connection subsists between his reason and his self-love, his opinion and his passions will have a reciprocal influence on each other.” This idea connects with the thought that in order to find pure knowledge these opinions must be brought to public understanding to be tested and debated for their truthfulness. Madison further states, “No man is allowed to be judge in his own cause; because his interest will certainly bias his judgment, and, not improbably, corrupt his integrity.” Also in my opinion, the man will not have inner peace due to his bias. Thus, it is important to have a forum to voice these truths that we hold in our mind so as to have the inner peace we want.
John Mill, in his essay Liberty of Thought and Discussion talks of two hypotheses that are important in understanding why the act of public debate is necessary for pure knowledge to be found and have inner peace that is desirous. Mills said, “ We can never be sure that the opinion we are endeavoring to stifle is a false opinion; and if we were sure, stifling it would be an evil still.” , and “ While every one well knows himself to be fallible, few think it necessary to take any precautions against their own fallibility, or admit the supposition that any opinion, of which they feel very certain, may be one of the examples of the error to which they acknowledge themselves to be liable.” These passages show that Mills understands the depth of necessary idea of public debate to prove or disprove pure knowledge. He knows the human mind has it’s own truth and to avoid dangerous outcomes putting this truth to the public will certainly take care of creating falsehoods in ones own mind. Thus, putting every individual at a higher level and
Discovering and retrieving the very most truth from all opinions without burdening the individual with the chance of falsehoods. Mill’s goes on to say that its cowardice to shrink from ones own opinion because if its your truth that your withholding from yourself which causes self deceit. Opinions are not something to be taken lightly because in reality opinions are the substance that pure knowledge is taken from. However, without the opportunity to test these opinions in public debate the pure knowledge can not be sifted out.
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American Politics In Transition
American Politics in Transition For the United States, as for most states in the world, the 1980’s and 1990’s were a time of change and challenge. During this period the effects of change both within the US and internationally acted as push factors in many areas of life, including economics and politics. This sudden change was primarily due to global shocks and recessions, increased foreign economic competition, the end of the Cold War and the demise of the Soviet Union, the development of revolutionary new technologies, the achievement of post-industrial society within the US, slower rates of domestic economic growth, and the demographic changes within American society. By the Mid 1980’s important developments had occurred within interest groups, political parties. By 1990’s national debates were being held in regard to America’s future in the post-Cold War world, America’s economic competitiveness, culture, morality and the states relationship with society. Five major things must be taken under account when discussing American politics in transition. 1) the basic nature of the American political system, 2) the sources of political change since the late 1960’s, 3) the conservative renewal and the new conservative agenda, 4) the Reagan-Bush legacy in politics and public policy 5) the new political and economic constraints in the era of divided government, and 6) the public policy environment of the 1990s. At the core of American political culture I support for the values of liberty, egalitarianism, individualism, populism and laissez-faire. The nature of this society with also has glorification of the individual, and the rejection of conservative theories of organic society, hierarchy, and natural aristocracy. Being an American means accepting this liberal Democratic creed (laissez faire), while those who reject it are considered to be un-American. America’s political evolution has also been shaped by the continental scale of the American State. The influx of immigration has caused there to be an extraordinary mixture of ethnic, racial, and religious groups spread across a continent-wide expanse that contributed historically to strong religious, racial and regional cleavages. Even its econony was spread throughout the American state. The largest sector of the economy were commercial agriculture, mercantile capitalism, mining, and heavy (capital goods) industry, but these, however, were also diversified into product specific areas. Collectively, the cultural, geographic, and socioeconomic factors had a profound effect on America’s political development because they reinforced the trend towards decentralization and localism that had already been established in the political and legal domains by the American constitution. The US constitutional/legal order created the most decentralized political system of an major state in the world. At the national level, under the separation of powers principle, the executive, legislative, and judicial branches operate as co-equal parts of the national government in the absence of any constitutionally prescribed hierarchy or scheme of coordination. The division of the states and the national government under the principles of federalism further contributes to the complexity and decentralization of the American government. The relationship between the sub units, the states, and the national government in the American federal system is the reverse of the found in other federations; the US constitution assigned only enumerated powers to the national government while reserving all residual powers for the states. Although a two part system developed early in American history, it was organized at the state and local levels and retained a local focus. This local focus was continually reinforced by the fact that every political office in the country was elected as the state or local level except that of the president and vice president. In general the US public policy has been characterized by cycles of growth and retrenchment in the scope of national government policy, reflecting the relative strength of the forces of nationalism and localism during different periods. The periods affecting the last two decades came from the cold ware, the fall of the soviet, economic, socioeconomic, the Vietnamese war and the change of the US as a multicultural and multiracial nation.
Word Count: 658
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